The contexts discussedhumor, news, entertaining filmcomprise some notable examples of how prejudiced communication is infused into daily life. Most notably, communicators may feel pressured to transmit a coherent message. Discuss examples of stereotypes you have read about or seen in media. Bias: Preconceptions or prejudice can lead to stereotyping or false assumptions. It is unclear how well the patterns discussed above apply when women or ethnic minorities give feedback to men or ethnic majority group members, though one intuits that fear of appearing prejudiced is not a primary concern. Brief, cold, and nonresponsive interactions often are experienced negatively, even in the absence of explicitly prejudiced language such as derogatory labels or articulation of stereotypic beliefs. Gender roles describeand sometimes prescribesocial roles and occupations, and language sometimes betrays communicators subscription to those norms. Obligatory non-genuine smiles might be produced when people interact with outgroup members toward whom outward hostility is prohibited or toward whom they wish to appear nonbiased; like verbal expressions of vacuous praise, non-Duchenne smiles are intentional but may be distrusted or detected by vigilant receivers. Have you ever experienced or witnessed what you thought was discrimination? Third-person pronouns, by contrast, are associated with distancing and negative feelings (e.g., Olekalns, Brett, & Donohue, 2010). Individuals also convey their prejudiced beliefs when communicating to outgroup members as message recipients. Similar patterns appear with provision of advice, alerting to risk, and informal mentoring: Feedback often is not given when it is truly needed and, if it simply comprises vacuous praise, it is difficult for recipients to gauge whether the feedback should be trusted. Similarly, humor that focuses on minorities from low-income groups essentially targets the stereotypes applied to the wider groups (i.e., middle- or higher-income minorities as well as low-income individuals from majority groups), although on the surface that humor is targeted only to a subgroup. Prejudice Oscar Wilde said, "Listening is a very dangerous thing. Alternatively, communicators might underaccommodate if they overestimate the listeners competence or if communicators infer that the listener is too incompetent or unmotivated to accept the message. As with the verbal feedback literature, Whites apparently are concerned about seeming prejudiced. Step 1: Describe the behavior or situation without evaluating or judging it. More broadly, prejudiced language can provide insight into how people think about other groups and members of other groups: They are different from us, they are all alike, they are less worthy than us, and they are outside the norm or even outside humanity. There is a strong pressure to preferentially transmit stereotype-congruent information rather than stereotype-incongruent information in order to maximize coherence. and the result is rather excessive amounts of exposure to stereotypic images for people in modern society. Because observers are less likely to notice the absence of something (e.g., short meetings, nominal advice) than the presence of something (e.g., unkind words or derogatory labels), these sins of omissions can be overlooked as prejudiced communication. Prejudiced communication takes myriad forms and emerges in numerous contexts. (Dovidio et al., 2010). The single most effective way to overcome communication obstacles is to improve listening skills. Stereotypically feminine occupations (e.g., kindergarten teacher) or activities (e.g., sewing) bring to mind a female actor, just as stereotypically masculine occupations (e.g., engineer) or activities (e.g., mountain-climbing) bring to mind a male actor. Communication maxims (Grice, 1975) enjoin speakers to provide only as much information as is necessary, to be clear and organized, to be relevant, and to be truthful. There also is considerable evidence that the linguistic intergroup bias is a special case of the linguistic expectancy bias whereby stereotype-congruent behaviorsirrespective of evaluative connotationare characterized more abstractly than stereotype-incongruent behaviors. For example, the metaphors can be transmitted quite effectively through visual arts such as propaganda posters and film. and in a busy communication environment sometimes may not be accorded appropriate scrutiny. Krauss & Fussell, 1991); group labels presumably develop in a similar fashion. Here are examples of social barriers: People with disabilities are far less likely to be employed. When our prejudices and stereotypes are unchallenged, they can lead toaction in the forms of discrimination and even violence. . MotivationWhy Communicate Prejudiced Beliefs? They arise because of the refusal to change or a lack of motivation. Further research needs to examine the conditions under which receivers might make this alternative interpretation. Define and give examples of ethnocentrism. In intergroup settings, such assumptions often are based on the stereotypes associated with the listeners apparent group membership. Although not as detrimental as ethnocentrism or stereotypes, anxiety can prevent us from making intercultural connections that will enrich our lives. Are blog posts that use derogatory language more likely to use avatars that occlude personal identity but instead advertise social identity or imply power and status? Similarly, Blacks are more accurate than Whites in detecting racial bias from Whites nonverbal behavior (Richeson & Shelton, 2005). Most research on intergroup feedback considers majority group members (or members of historically powerful groups) in the higher status role. It may be that wefeel as though we will do or say the wrong thing. Social scientists have studied these patterns most extensively in the arenas of speech accommodation, performance feedback, and nonverbal communication. For example, female members of British Parliament may be photographed in stereotypically feminine contexts (e.g., sitting on a comfortable sofa sipping tea; Ross & Sreberny-Mohammadi, 1997). For example, an invitation to faculty and their wives appears to imply that faculty members are male, married, and heterosexual. Are stereotype-supporting images more likely than non-stereotypic images to become memes (cf. The level of prejudice varies depending on the student's home country (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. There have been a number of shocking highly publicized instances in which African-Americans were killed by vigilantes or law enforcement, one of the more disturbing being the case of George Floyd. In one of the earliest social psychology studies on pronouns, Robert Cialdini and colleagues (1976) interviewed students following American college football games. This button displays the currently selected search type. Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one's membership in a particular social group, such as gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). Prejudiced attitudes and stereotypic beliefs about outgroups can be reflected in language and everyday conversations. . But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other cultures and could cause misunderstanding and conflict. Individuals in low-status positions are expected to smile (and evince other signs of deference and politeness), and smiling among low-status individuals is not indicative of how they actually feel. People may express their attitudes and beliefs through casual conversation, electronic media, or mass communication outletsand evidence suggests that those messages impact receivers attitudes and beliefs. More implicit attitudes and beliefs may be leaked through variations in sentence structure and subtle word choices. Thus, even when communicators are not explicitly motivated to harm outgroups (or to extol their ingroups superior qualities), they still may be prone to transmit the stereotype-congruent information that potentially bolsters the stereotypic views of others in the social network: They simply may be trying to be coherent, easily understood, and noncontroversial. Variations in word choice or phrasing can betray simplistic, negative, or homogeneous views of outgroups. As previously noted, stereotypic information is preferentially transmitted, in part, because it is coherent and implicitly shared; it also is easily understood and accepted, particularly under conditions of cognitive busyness and high unpleasant uncertainty. What is transmitted is very likely to be stereotypic, brief, and incomplete . Prejudice in intercultural communication. 400-420). A barrier to effective communication can be defined as something which restricts or disables communicators from delivering the right message to the right individual at the right moment, or a recipient from receiving the right message at the right time. Many extant findings on prejudiced communication should generalize to communication in the digital age, but future research also will need to examine how the unique features of social media shape the new face of prejudiced communication. Have you ever been guilty of stereotyping others, perhaps unintentionally? Neither is right or wrong, simply different. Fortunately, counterstereotypic characters in entertaining television (e.g., Dora the Explorer) might undercut the persistence of some stereotypes (Ryan, 2010), so the impact of images can cut both ways. These barriers, namely, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, involve the formation of beliefs or judgments about another culture even before communication occurs.The following attitudes and behaviors towards culture poses difficulties in communicating effectively between cultures. A number of theories propose explanations for why people perceive something as amusing, and many have been applied to group-based humor. Nominalization transforms verbs into nouns, again obfuscating who is responsible for the action (e.g., A rape occurred, or There will be penalties). Casual observation of team sporting events illustrates the range of behaviors that reflect intergroup bias: Individuals don the colors of their teams and chant their teams praises, take umbrage at a referees call of egregious penalties against the home team, or pick fights with rival fans. Finally, most abstract are adjectives (e.g., lazy) that do not reference a specific behavior or object, but infer the actors internal disposition. Dehumanization relegates members of other groups to the status of objects or animals and, by extension, describes the emotions that they should prompt and prescribes how they should be treated. Many barriers to effective communication exist. However, we must recognize these attributesin ourselves and others before we can take steps to challenge and change their existence. Occupations and roles attributed to members of particular ethnic groups (e.g., grape-stomper, mule) often become derogatory labels. 2004. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation almost any characteristic. Define and give examples of stereotyping. In their ABC model, Tipler and Ruscher (2014) propose that eight basic linguistic metaphors for groups are formed from the combinations of whether the dehumanized group possesses (or does not possess) higher-order affective states, behavioral capacity, and cognitive abilities. The latter characterization, in contrast, implies that the man is lazy (beyond this instance) and judges the behavior negatively; in these respects, then, the latter characterization is relatively abstract and reflects the negative stereotype of the group. For example, communicators may speak louder, exaggerate stress points, and vary their pitch more with foreigners than with native adults. More recent work on cross-race interactions (e.g., Trawalter & Richeson, 2008) makes similar observations about immediacy-type behaviors. . Stereotype-congruent features also are preferred because their transmission maintains ingroup harmony in existing groups (Clark & Kashima, 2007). Listeners may presume that particular occupations or activities are performed by members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the contrary. The student is associated with the winning team (i.e., we won), but not associated with the same team when it loses (i.e., they lost). For example, certain ethnic outgroups have been characterized as wild beastsviolent apes or hungry lionsfilled with primitive lusts and reactive anger that prompt them toward threatening behaviors. The parasite metaphor also is prevalent in Nazi film propaganda and in Hitlers Mein Kampf (Musolff, 2007). Small conversing groups of ordinary citizens who engage in ingroup talk may transmit stereotypes among themselves, and stereotypes also may be transmitted via mass communication vehicles such as major news outlets and the professional film industry. For instance, labels for women are highly sexualized: Allen (1990) reports 220 English words for sexually promiscuous females compared to 20 for males, underscoring a perception that women are objects for sex. All three examples also illustrate that communicators select what is presented: what is newsworthy, what stories are worth telling, what images are used. People also direct prejudiced communication to outgroups: They talk down to others, give vacuous feedback and advice, and nonverbally leak disdain or anxiety. Is social media more (or less) stereotype perpetuating than more traditional mass communication venues; and, if so, is that impact unique in quality or simply in quantity? Although early information carries greater weight in a simple sentence, later information may be weighted more heavily in compound sentences. Overcoming Barriers to our Perceptions. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books/Doubleday. And inlate 2020, "the United Nationsissued a reportthat detailed "an alarming level" of racially motivated violence and other hate incidents against Asian Americans." An examination of traditional morning and evening news programs or daily newspapers gives some insight into how prejudiced or stereotypic beliefs might be transmitted across large numbers of individuals. The Best Solution for Overcoming Communication Barriers. Surely, a wide array of research opportunities awaits the newest generation of social scientists who are interested in prejudiced communication. Students tended to rely on first-person plurals when referencing wins, but third-person plurals when referencing losses. Some evidence suggests that people fail to apply such conversational conventions to outgroups: The addition of mitigating explanations for negative outcomes does not help outgroup members (Ruscher, 2001). . Differences in nonverbal immediacy also is portrayed on television programs; exposure to biased immediacy patterns can influence subsequent judgments of White and Black television characters (Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). Similar patterns of controlling talk and unresponsiveness to receiver needs may be seen in medical settings, such as biased physicians differential communication patterns with Black versus White patients (Cooper et al., 2012). A "small" way might be in disdain for other cultures' or co-cultures' food preferences. Humor attempts take various forms, including jokes, narratives, quips, tweets, visual puns, Internet memes, and cartoons. Curtailing biased communication begins with identifying it for what it is, and it ends when we remove such talk from our mindset. Speech addressed to non-native speakers also can be overaccommodating, to the extent that it includes features that communicators might believe facilitate comprehension. That caveat notwithstanding, in the context of prejudice, evaluative connotation and stereotypicality frequently are confounded (i.e., the stereotypic qualities of groups against whom one is prejudiced are usually negative qualities). Ruscher and colleagues (Ruscher, Wallace, Walker, & Bell, 2010) proposed that cross-group feedback can be viewed in a two-dimension space created by how much feedback-givers are concerned about appearing prejudiced and how much accountability feedback-givers feel for providing feedback that is potentially helpful. Thus, differential immediacy can leak communicator bias, affect targets of that bias, and also can impact observers in the wider social environment. Broadly speaking, communicators may adjust their messages to the presumed characteristics of receivers (i.e., accommodate; Giles, 2016). Labelsthe nouns that cut slicesthus serve the mental process of organizing concepts about groups. Indeed, individuals from collectivist cultureswho especially value ingroup harmonydefault to transmitting stereotype-congruent information unless an explicit communication goal indicates doing so is inappropriate (Yeung & Kashima, 2012). Explain. That noted, face-ismand presumably other uses of stereotypic imagesis influenced by the degree of bias in the source. Thus, at least in English, use of the masculine signals to women that they do not belong (Stout & Dasgupta, 2016). Ethnocentrismassumesour culture or co-culture is superior to or more important than others and evaluates all other cultures against it. In fact, preference for disparaging humor is especially strong among individuals who adhere to hierarchy-endorsing myths that dismiss such humor as harmless (Hodson, Rush, & MacInnis, 2010). The present consideration is restricted to the production of nonverbal behaviors that conceivably might accompany the verbal channels discussed throughout this chapter: facial expressions and immediacy behaviors. Outgroup negative behaviors are described abstractly (e.g., the man is lazy, as above), but positive behaviors are described in a more concrete fashion. To dismantle ethnocentrism, we must recognize that our views of the world, what we consider right and wrong, normal or weird, are largely influenced by our cultural standpoint and that our cultural standpoint is not everyone's cultural standpoint. Although one might argue that such visual depictions sometimes reflect reality (i.e., that there is a grain of truth to stereotypes), there is evidence that at least some media outlets differentially select images that support social stereotypes. A fundamental principal of classical conditioning is that neutral objects that are paired with pleasant (or unpleasant) stimuli take on the evaluative connotation of those stimuli, and group-differentiating pronouns are no exception. Dramatic examples of propaganda posters are on display in the United States National World War II Museum (e.g., one that uses the parasite metaphor depicts a beautiful Japanese woman combing lice-like allied soldiers out of her hair). The widespread use of certain metaphors for disparaged outgroups suggests the possibility of universality across time and culture. How we perceive others can be improved by developing better listening and empathetic skills, becoming aware of stereotypes and prejudice, developing self-awareness through self-reflection, and engaging in perception checking. In 2017, 35.5% of people with disabilities, ages 18 to 64 years, were employed, while 76.5% of people without disabilities were employed, about double that of people with disabilities. This stereotype is perpetuated by animated films for children as well as in top-grossing films targeted to adults (Smith, McIntosh, & Bazzini, 1999). . They include displaying smiles (and not displaying frowns), as well as low interpersonal distance, leaning forward toward the other person, gaze, open postures, and nodding. Communication Directed to Outgroup Members, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.419, Culture, Prejudice, Racism, and Discrimination, Race and Ethnicity in U.S. Media Content and Effects, Social Psychological Approaches to Intergroup Communication, Behavioral Indicators of Discrimination in Social Interactions, Harold Innis' Concept of Bias: Its Intellectual Origins and Misused Legacy. Support from others who are responsible for giving constructive feedback may buffer communicators against concerns that critical feedback might mark them as potentially prejudiced. Communication is one of the most effective ways of expressing our thoughts and emotions. Why not the bottom right corner, or the top right one? When prejudice leads to incorrect conclusions about other people, it can break down intercultural communication and lead to feelings of hostility and resentment. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. As the term implies, impression management goals involve efforts to create a particular favorable impression with an audience and, as such, different impression goals may favor the transmission of particular types of information. Prejudiced and stereotypic beliefs can be leaked through linguistic choices that favor ingroup members over outgroup members, low immediacy behaviors, and use of stereotypic images in news, television, and film. As discussed earlier, desire to advantage ones ingroup and, at times, to disparage and harm an outgroup underlie a good deal of prejudiced communication. Reliance on shared stereotypicand even archetypicalimages essentially meets the communication goals discussed earlier: A story must be coherent, relevant, and transmitted in a finite amount of time. Overcoming Prejudices To become a successful international manager, you must overcome prejudices that can be communicated through your verbal and non-verbal communication. In one unusual investigation, Mullen and his colleagues show that label references to the character Shylock in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice (e.g., infidel, the Jew) become more likely as the number of Christian characters on stage increase (Mullen, Rozell, & Johnson, 1996). In The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon Allport wrote of nouns that cut slices. He argued that human beings categorize who and what they encounter and advance one feature to a primary status that outweighs and organizes other features. Following communication maxims (Grice, 1975), receivers expect communicators to tell them only as much information as is relevant. Group-disparaging humor often relies heavily on cultural knowledge of stereotypes. In peer interactions, for example, Richeson and Shelton have argued that Black and White participants may have different goals (e.g., to be respected versus to appear non-prejudiced); these different goals can prompt unique communication patterns from minority and majority group members. Although they perhaps can control the content of their verbal behavior (e.g., praise), Whites who are concerned about appearing prejudiced nonverbally leak their anxieties into the interaction. Favoritism may include increased provision of desirable resources and more positive evaluation of behaviors and personal qualities, as well as protection from unpleasant outcomes. Communicators also use secondary baby talk when speaking to individuals with developmental cognitive disabilities, but also may use this speech register when the receiver has a physical disability unrelated to cognitive functioning (e.g., an individual with cerebral palsy). The highly observable attributes of a derogatory group label de-emphasize the specific individuals characteristics, and instead emphasize both that the person is a member of a specific group and, just as importantly, not a member of a group that the communicator values. More broadly, use of masculine terms (e.g., mankind) and pronouns (e.g., he) as a generic reference to all people fails to bring female actors to mind (for a discussion see Ruscher, 2001). Check out this great listen on Audible.com. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. They comprise the linguistic nuts-and-bolts by which prejudiced beliefs may be communicated, but only hint at why such beliefs are communicated, in what social contexts those communications are prevalent, and what their eventual impact might be. On May 25, 2020, George Floyd died after Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin knelt on his neck for over 8 minutes;almost 3 of those minutes were after Floyd was unconscious. But other motivations that insidiously favor the transmission of biased beliefs come into play. Like the work on exclusion discussed earlier, such interactions imply that outgroup members are not worthy of attention nor should they be accorded the privileges of valued group members. . sometimes just enough to be consciously perceived (e.g., Vanman, Paul, Ito, & Miller, 1997). What People Get Wrong About Alaska Natives. This pattern is evident in conversations, initial descriptions from one communicator to another, and serial reproduction across individuals in a communication chain (for reviews, see Kashima, Klein, & Clark, 2007; Ruscher, 2001). Thus, just because a message may use subtle linguistic features or is not fully intentional, bias still may impact observers just as more explicitly biased communications do. As one easily imagines, these maxims can come into conflict: A communicator who is trying to be clear and organized may decide to omit confusing details (although doing so may compromise telling the whole truth). Interestingly, periodicals and postage stamp portraits show greater focus on the face for men and Whites (i.e., rational, powerful) than for women and Blacks (i.e., emotional, less powerful). In considering how prejudiced beliefs and stereotypes are transmitted, it is evident that those beliefs may communicated in a variety of ways. According to a Pew Research Report,"32% of Asian adults say they have feared someone might threaten or physically attack themwith the majority ofAsian adults (81%) saying violence against them is increasing. A "large" and one of the most horrific examples of ethnocentrism in history can be seen is in the Nazis elevation of the Aryan race in World War IIand the corresponding killing of Jews, Gypsies, gays and lesbians, and other non-Aryan groups. Another motivation that may influence descriptions of outgroups falls under the general category of impression management goals. Using care to choose unambiguous, neutral language and . [House Hearing, 117 Congress] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office] THERE'S NO PRIDE IN PREJUDICE: ELIMINATING BARRIERS TO FULL ECONOMIC INCLUSION FOR THE LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY ===== VIRTUAL HEARING BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION OF THE COMMITTEE ON FINANCIAL SERVICES U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ONE HUNDRED SEVENTEENTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION _____ NOVEMBER 9, 2021 . Presumably, a photographer or artist has at least some control over how much of the body appears in an image. These slight signals of frowning can distinguish among people high versus low in prejudice toward a group at which they are looking, so even slight frowns do communicate prejudiced feelings (for a discussion, see Ruscher, 2001). Prejudice can hamper the communication. Consequently, when the writer allegedly is a Black student, Whites tend to praise a poorly written essay on subjective dimensions (e.g., how interesting or inspiring an essay was) and confine their criticisms to easily defensible objective dimensions (e.g., spelling). Outgroups who are members of historically disadvantaged groups, in particular, are targets of controlling or patronizing speech, biased feedback, and nonverbal behavior that leaks bias. Organizational barriers: Labels of course are not simply economical expressions that divide us and them. Labels frequently are derogatory, and they have the capacity to produce negative outcomes. Stereotypes are frequently expressed on TV, in movies, chat rooms and blogs, and in conversations with friends and family. Thus, the images that accompany news stories may be stereotypic, unless individuals responsible for final transmission guard against such bias. Indeed, animal metaphors such as ape, rat, and dog consistently are associated with low socioeconomic groups across world cultures (Loughnan, Haslam, Sutton, & Spencer, 2014). Presumption of low competence also can prompt underaccommodation, but this pattern may occur especially when the communicator does not feel that the recipient is deserving of care or warmth. (https://youtu.be/Fls_W4PMJgA?list=PLfjTXaT9NowjmBcbR7gJVFECprsobMZiX), Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): How You See Me. The most well-known implicit measure of prejudicetheImplicit Association Test (IAT)is frequently used to assess stereotypes and prejudice (Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2007). Work on communication maxims (e.g., Grice, 1975) and grounding (e.g., Clark & Brennan, 1991) indicate that communicators should attempt brevity when possible, and that communicating group members develop terms for shared understanding. As research begins to consider interactions in which historically lower status group members hold higher situational status (cf. Although prejudiced and stereotypic beliefs may be communicated in many contexts, an elaboration of a few of these contexts illustrates the far reach of prejudiced communication. They are wild animals, robots, and vermin who should be feared, guarded against, or exterminated. Where did you start reading on this page? Exposure to films that especially perpetuate the stereotype can influence judgments made about university applicants (Smith et al., 1999) and also can predict gender-stereotyped behavior in children (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, & Birkbeck, 2016). 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